Leadership in Groups:. All groups primary and secondary tend to have leaders-- people who are able to influence the behavior of others consistently. What makes a leader? It's difficult to say what specific personal characteristics are important. The argument that "leaders are born not made" doesn't hold water, but there are some physical characteristics that seem to emerge often among leaders: Of course, there are numerous exceptions to the following :.
The situation is very important in determining leadership. Usually by this we mean what the purpose of the group is what it does and the skills that the leader has.
A good example of this is Capt. John Smith and the situation involving the Jamestown colony in Virginia. The colony of about settlers was in danger of being wiped out by famine, hostile indians , and poor leadership. Smith, by far was the ablest leader there experienced, brave, charismatic he was short 5'2". But he was also brash and, at times, disrespectful to authority.
On the way across the Atlantic he had been placed under arrest and was not released until a month after the colonists had landed Dabney , p. After a initial problems and the failings of other leaders, Smith was asked to take over and organized the colony in the early years, He was the main reason why it survived.
In he suffered a serious injury gunshot wound accidental and returned to England in the Fall of that year. There were about colonists when he departed. The next Spring 60 colonists were left. Indian hostility was the primary reason for the deaths most colonists starved to death, others were massacred, still others succumbed to disease.
It is questionable whether or not Smith could have fared any better than those who were left to lead the colony, but he was its best leader. Small group research has shown that there are two types of leaders:. Usually, when a group is formed, both these functions are assumed by one person, but as time goes on they split and a new person usually emerges to take over the maintenance. One reason for this is that the instrumental leaders tend to lose popularity they tell everybody what to do and give them a hard time if it's not done.
Styles of leadership: Usually, you'll find that leadership has been divided into three separate kinds:. Group Size:. Perhaps one of the most important characteristics of a group is its size. Size determines the kind of interaction that occurs within a group-- basically how the group works.
The smaller the group, the more intense the interaction. Group conformity is very strong in a small group. A German sociologist, Georg Simmel is perhaps the first to emphasize the importance of interaction processes within groups. He pointed out that as a group grows in size, it must develop "forms and organs which serve its maintenance and promotion.
On the other hand, small groups have qualities that disappear when groups grow larger. Schaefer, The smallest group is the dyad, a two person group. Here the emotional level is very intense because the two people in the group depend on each other for existence of the group. One reason for this is that you can't hide responsibility for things that occur within the confines of the dyad. It's either you or me, and I know I didn't do it. Simmel pointed out that the thought of termination of the group hangs over a dyadic relationship perhaps more than any other type of relationship.
In Triads or three person groups, many of these qualities change. In many respects, a whole different world exists. Small Groups: When we refer to "small groups," we mean that there are sufficiently few members that all members can relate to each other as individuals According to Theodore Caplow , the upper limit of such groups is about 30 people.
Our text seems to imply that 20 people is the largest a primary group can become. Group Formation:. Group Boundaries:. How does a group define its own boundaries so that it can distinguish itself form the surrounding population or other groups? In some cases it's easy as the groups adopt badges, emblems, uniforms, etc.
Fire Department, Police, Military, all are good examples. In other cases, the differences are not as obvious and we have to spend a little more time studying a group before we can tell what characteristics its members have adopted to distinguish itself from the surrounding world.
Here are some examples:. By establishing norms of physical appearance groups reinforce their boundaries and develope a sense of "we" the in-group and "they" the out-group. There are also other ways that group identity is reinforced.
Special holidays and "anniversaries" Independence Day or July Fourth, for example reinforce group identity. The wedding ceremony is one "rite of passage" that marks the formation of a new group in our society. At another level, to become a citizen when you're born outside the U.
Group Decision Making:. Which is better at making a decision-- a group or an individual? Research on this question indicates that the answer depends on the kind of task that is involved: Tasks can be divided into two different kinds: determinate and indeterminate :. The Risky Shift: Groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals. It is hypothesized that when in a group, responsibility for the decision is "diffused" among the members.
Individuals are more visibly accountable for the decisions that they make alone. Thus, individual decision-making tends to be more conservative. Group Think: Inside the group, there is normative pressure to conform and produce unanamous decisions. This pressure may cause people to ignore or play down information that goes against group norms guiding the decision process. Group Think can have disasterous consequences. Some writers have pointed to U.
Schaefer has a great example of how the Persians avoided the dangers of "group think. First, they would address the issue while sober.
Then they would get drunk and revisit it. The idea being that alcohol, as a releaser, would remove people's inhibitions against opposing group norms! Group Size; Communication, Conflict, and Cohesiveness:. As we've seen, in a two person arrangement a dyad , the members are totally dependent on each other, but in a triad, alliances can form and an individual can benefit from a disagreement between the other two members.
As group size increases, the total number of possible relationships increases from. When a group starts getting up beyond seven members, leaders start dominating communications and the group's procedures become more formal. When a group starts getting very large , certain things start happening. It tends to become less less cohesive and there is an increase in internal conflict. Of course there are exceptions to this. Formal Organizations:.
A formal organization has been commonly defined to be a large social group that is deliberately and rationally formed to achieve specific objectives. Generally, formal organizations share the following characteristics:. Formal organizations can be voluntary People join of their own will-- political parties, churches, etc. Bureaucracy: When we speak of formal organizations we usually think of bureaucracy and the work of Max Weber. Bureaucracy is the part of a formal ogranization responsible for planning, coordinating, and supervising work.
Essentially, it is the formal organization's administrative arm. Common sense may tell us that bureaucracies are inherently inefficient but Weber points out that overall, they are very efficient in doing what they're supposed to do-- distrributing vast amounts of information and material across a large area.
Max Weber applied his concept of "ideal type" to the study of bureaucracy and found that the typical bureaucracy has the following features:. Clearly defined and specific purposes with associated rules and regulations which govern the behavior of officials. The economic system in which the means of production are owned privately and individuals are free to keep the profits they make. In industrialized societies, the rich and powerful and the owners of the means of production.
It is also called the elite. A collection of people who share a particular characteristic but have nothing else in common. The middle stratum of the estate system of stratification, composed of Roman Catholic priests. The tendency for a powerful country to invade a weaker country in order to exploit its resources by making it a colony. The lowest stratum of the estate system of stratification, composed of the masses of people who spent their lives engaged in hard physical labor.
An economic system similar to socialism in which all the means of production would be owned by everyone and all profits would be shared equally by everyone. The view that purports that equality in a capitalist society is an illusion. The owners of the means of production have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo by keeping the working class in a disadvantaged position. A monarchy in which the reigning member of the royal family is the symbolic head of state but elected officials actually do the governing.
The theft of property or certain forms of damage against the property of another person. The process whereby an aspect of culture spreads throughout a culture or from one culture to another. The attitude that in order to understand the traits of another culture, one must view them within the context of that culture.
The tendency for changes in material culture to occur at a more rapid rate than changes in nonmaterial culture. The phrase that Oscar Lewis used to describe the idea that poor people do not learn the norms and values that can help them improve their circumstances and hence get trapped in a repeated pattern of poverty.
The surprise, disorientation, and fear people can experience upon encountering a different culture. A political system in which citizens periodically choose officials to run their government. A way of living that differs from the dominant culture, in which members share a particular form of deviance. An ideology developed by the nobility during the Middle Ages that posited that the authority of the nobility came directly from God.
The institution responsible for the production and distribution of goods and services. The institution responsible for preparing young people for a functional place in adult life and for transmitting culture from one generation to the next.
According to Freud, the part of the mind that resolves conflicts between the id and the superego. The phrase that describes the increasing number of female-headed households living at or below the poverty level. A secondary group that is organized to achieve specific goals and tends to be large and impersonal. A set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.
It is also called goal replacement. The institution responsible for making and enforcing the rules of society and for regulating relations with other societies.
Two or more people who interact over time, have a sense of identity or belonging, and have norms that nonmembers do not have. A term that implies that our thoughts and behavior are influenced by the groups of which we are members and, in turn, we influence the thought process and behavior of the group as a whole.
A term coined by Irving Janis that refers to the tendency of people in positions of power to follow the opinions of the group, to the point that there is a narrow view of the issue at hand.
The assumption that a physically attractive person also possesses other good qualities. A society in which people acquire food by hunting game and gathering edible plants. According to Freud, the first part of the mind to develop and the part of the self responsible for the satisfaction of physical states.
A system of stratification in which an individual agrees to sell his or her body or labor to another for a specified period of time. A society that uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery. Countries that are in the process of becoming industrialized; includes most of the countries of the former Soviet Union.
According to control theory, the thought processes such as morality or a conscience that reside within people and that can prevent them from committing acts of deviance. A set of norms surrounding the carrying out of a function necessary for the survival of a society. Legitimate, socially approved ways that societies offer their members to achieve culturally approved goals. A theory of deviance put forth by Howard Becker that claims that deviance is that which is so labeled.
The attitudes that we convey in an attempt to get others to form certain impressions about us. According to Goffman, it is one of the sign vehicles we use to present ourselves to others, along with the setting and our appearance.
A large impersonal society in which individual achievement is valued over kinship ties and in which people often feel isolated from one another. A status we possess that overrides all other statuses and becomes the one by which we are known to others.
The institution responsible for defining and treating mental and physical problems among its members. A term used to refer to a pluralistic society in which people who originally come from different societies blend together to form a new society.
A system of stratification in which positions are given according to individual merit. The class that consists of people who earn their money by working at professional jobs, also called white-collar jobs. A political system in which a representative from one family controls the government and power is passed on through that family from generation to generation.
A social custom in which married couples move to a new home of their own together. A series of social ties that can be important sources of information, contacts, and assistance for its members. The class that consists of people whose wealth has been around only for a generation or two.
The highest stratum of the estate system of stratification. Members had significant inherited wealth and did little or no discernible work. According to control theory, individuals who encourage people not to stray into deviance. A society that relies on the domestication and breeding of animals for food. A social group in which members are usually the same age and have interests and social position in common.
A society that features an economy based on services and technology, not production. An estimate set by the federal government of the minimum income that a family of four needs to survive.
A term coined by C. Wright Mills that refers to his theory that the United States is actually run by a small group representing the most wealthy, powerful, and influential people in business, government, and the military.
According to Lemert, a deviant act that elicits little or no reaction from others. A group in which there is frequent face-to-face contact, little task orientation, and emotional intimacy among members.
Props also include manner of dress. The belief that while the physical body dies, the soul of a person is immortal and goes on to be reborn into another body. A set of norms, values, and personality characteristics expected of a person based on the setting he or she is in.
A group in which there is infrequent or short-term contact, little task orientation, and no emotional intimacy among members. The place where interaction takes place. According to Goffman, it is one of the sign vehicles we use to present ourselves to others, along with manner of interacting and appearance. Sign vehicles consist of setting, appearance, and manner of interacting. According to Charles Horton Cooley, a person in our lives whose opinions matter to us and who is in a position to influence our thinking.
A worker who is literate and has experience and expertise in specific areas of production or on specific kinds of machines. A system of stratification in which one person owns another, usually for economic gain.
A theory suggesting that the way in which we present ourselves is shaped by our life experiences, as well as by our interactions with others.
The degree to which an individual feels connected to the other people in his or her group or community. A system under which resources and means of production are owned by the society as a whole, rights to private property are limited, the good of the whole society is stressed more than individual profit, and the government maintains control of the economy. A calculation based on a complex formula that takes into account education, occupation, and income. A system under which resources and means of production are privately owned but closely monitored and regulated by the government.
The collection of all of our different statuses, from every setting in which we are a member. An assumption we make about a person or a group, often on the basis of incorrect or incomplete information. A sociological view of society as a complex unit made up of interrelated parts. Sociologists who apply this theory study social structure and social function. A group that espouses a way of living that is different from that of the dominant culture.
According to Freud, the part of the mind that encourages conformity to societal norms and values. It is also called the conscience. A sociological framework that views society as a product of the everyday social interactions of individuals. The theory espousing sociologist W.
The highest social group, consisting of people with inherited wealth and a recognizable family name. The process by which the majority of a population comes to live within commuting distance of a major city. A culturally approved belief about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. A group we choose to join, in which members are united by the pursuit of a common goal. A system that features a market-based economy coupled with an extensive social welfare system that includes free health care and education for all citizens.
Some groups, like therapy groups for survivors of sexual assault or support groups for people with cancer, exist primarily to provide emotional support. While these groups may also meet instrumental needs through connections and referrals to resources, they fulfill the interpersonal need for belonging that is a central human need.
Our affiliations are building blocks for our identities, because group membership allows us to use reference groups for social comparison—in short, identifying us with some groups and characteristics and separating us from others. Some people join groups to be affiliated with people who share similar or desirable characteristics in terms of beliefs, attitudes, values, or cultural identities. Group memberships vary in terms of how much they affect our identity, as some are more prominent than others at various times in our lives.
Group membership helps meet our interpersonal needs by providing an opportunity for affection and inclusion. Likewise, the achievements we make as a group member can enhance our self-esteem, add to our reputation, and allow us to create or project certain identity characteristics to engage in impression management. For example, a person may take numerous tests to become a part of Mensa, which is an organization for people with high IQs, for no material gain but for the recognition or sense of achievement that the affiliation may bring.
Likewise, people may join sports teams, professional organizations, and honor societies for the sense of achievement and affiliation. Such groups allow us opportunities to better ourselves by encouraging further development of skills or knowledge. For example, a person who used to play the oboe in high school may join the community band to continue to improve on his or her ability. There are many types of small groups, but the most common distinction made between types of small groups is that of task-oriented and relational-oriented groups Hargie, In such groups, like a committee or study group, interactions and decisions are primarily evaluated based on the quality of the final product or output.
Groups faced with production tasks are asked to produce something tangible from their group interactions such as a report, design for a playground, musical performance, or fundraiser event.
Groups faced with discussion tasks are asked to talk through something without trying to come up with a right or wrong answer. Groups faced with problem-solving tasks have to devise a course of action to meet a specific need. Instead, the end goal is a well-thought-out idea. Task-oriented groups require honed problem-solving skills to accomplish goals, and the structure of these groups is more rigid than that of relational-oriented groups.
Relational-oriented groups are formed to promote interpersonal connections and are more focused on quality interactions that contribute to the well-being of group members. Decision making is directed at strengthening or repairing relationships rather than completing discrete tasks or debating specific ideas or courses of action. For example, although a family unit works together daily to accomplish tasks like getting the kids ready for school and friendship groups may plan a surprise party for one of the members, their primary and most meaningful interactions are still relational.
Since other chapters in this book focus specifically on interpersonal relationships, this chapter focuses more on task-oriented groups and the dynamics that operate within these groups. To more specifically look at the types of small groups that exist, we can examine why groups form.
Some groups are formed based on interpersonal relationships. Our family and friends are considered primary groups , or long-lasting groups that are formed based on relationships and include significant others.
These are the small groups in which we interact most frequently. They form the basis of our society and our individual social realities.
Kinship networks provide important support early in life and meet physiological and safety needs, which are essential for survival. They also meet higher-order needs such as social and self-esteem needs. When people do not interact with their biological family, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, they can establish fictive kinship networks, which are composed of people who are not biologically related but fulfill family roles and help provide the same support.
We also interact in many secondary groups , which are characterized by less frequent face-to-face interactions, less emotional and relational communication, and more task-related communication than primary groups Barker, While we are more likely to participate in secondary groups based on self-interest, our primary-group interactions are often more reciprocal or other oriented. For example, we may join groups because of a shared interest or need.
Groups formed based on shared interest include social groups and leisure groups such as a group of independent film buffs, science fiction fans, or bird watchers.
Some groups form to meet the needs of individuals or of a particular group of people. Examples of groups that meet the needs of individuals include study groups or support groups like a weight loss group. These groups are focused on individual needs, even though they meet as a group, and they are also often discussion oriented.
Service groups, on the other hand, work to meet the needs of individuals but are task oriented. Service groups include Habitat for Humanity and Rotary Club chapters, among others. Still other groups form around a shared need, and their primary task is advocacy. Similar groups form to advocate for everything from a stop sign at a neighborhood intersection to the end of human trafficking. As we already learned, other groups are formed primarily to accomplish a task.
Increasingly, small groups and teams are engaging in more virtual interaction. Virtual groups take advantage of new technologies and meet exclusively or primarily online to achieve their purpose or goal. Some virtual groups may complete their task without ever being physically face-to-face. Virtual groups are now common in academic, professional, and personal contexts, as classes meet entirely online, work teams interface using webinar or video-conferencing programs, and people connect around shared interests in a variety of online settings.
Virtual groups also increase the possibility for the inclusion of diverse members. The ability to transcend distance means that people with diverse backgrounds and diverse perspectives are more easily accessed than in many offline groups. As we will learn later in this chapter, an important part of coming together as a group is the socialization of group members into the desired norms of the group.
Since norms are implicit, much of this information is learned through observation or conveyed informally from one group member to another. In fact, in traditional groups, group members passively acquire 50 percent or more of their knowledge about group norms and procedures, meaning they observe rather than directly ask Comer, Virtual groups experience more difficulty with this part of socialization than copresent traditional groups do, since any form of electronic mediation takes away some of the richness present in face-to-face interaction.
To help overcome these challenges, members of virtual groups should be prepared to put more time and effort into building the relational dimensions of their group. Virtual groups who do not overcome these challenges will likely struggle to meet deadlines, interact less frequently, and experience more absenteeism.
As with anything, small groups have their advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of small groups include shared decision making, shared resources, synergy, and exposure to diversity. It is within small groups that most of the decisions that guide our country, introduce local laws, and influence our family interactions are made. In a democratic society, participation in decision making is a key part of citizenship. Groups also help in making decisions involving judgment calls that have ethical implications or the potential to negatively affect people.
Individuals making such high-stakes decisions in a vacuum could have negative consequences given the lack of feedback, input, questioning, and proposals for alternatives that would come from group interaction.
Group members also help expand our social networks, which provide access to more resources. A local community-theater group may be able to put on a production with a limited budget by drawing on these connections to get set-building supplies, props, costumes, actors, and publicity in ways that an individual could not. The increased knowledge, diverse perspectives, and access to resources that groups possess relates to another advantage of small groups—synergy.
Synergy refers to the potential for gains in performance or heightened quality of interactions when complementary members or member characteristics are added to existing ones Larson Jr. Because of synergy, the final group product can be better than what any individual could have produced alone.
As a group, we created teams representing different countries around the world, made brackets for people to track progress and predict winners, got sponsors, gathered prizes, and ended up with a very successful event that would not have been possible without the synergy created by our collective group membership. The members of this group were also exposed to international diversity that enriched our experiences, which is also an advantage of group communication. Participating in groups can also increase our exposure to diversity and broaden our perspectives.
Although groups vary in the diversity of their members, we can strategically choose groups that expand our diversity, or we can unintentionally end up in a diverse group. When we participate in small groups, we expand our social networks, which increase the possibility to interact with people who have different cultural identities than ourselves. Since group members work together toward a common goal, shared identification with the task or group can give people with diverse backgrounds a sense of commonality that they might not have otherwise.
Even when group members share cultural identities, the diversity of experience and opinion within a group can lead to broadened perspectives as alternative ideas are presented and opinions are challenged and defended. This example brings together the potential of synergy and diversity. People who are more introverted or just avoid group communication and voluntarily distance themselves from groups—or are rejected from groups—risk losing opportunities to learn more about others and themselves.
There are also disadvantages to small group interaction. In some cases, one person can be just as or more effective than a group of people. Think about a situation in which a highly specialized skill or knowledge is needed to get something done. In this situation, one very knowledgeable person is probably a better fit for the task than a group of less knowledgeable people. Group interaction also has a tendency to slow down the decision-making process.
Individuals connected through a hierarchy or chain of command often work better in situations where decisions must be made under time constraints.
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